Scientific Method
The scientific method is a systematic set of principles and procedures for generating and representing knowledge as accurately as possible. Science generally uses inductive reasoning to ascertain truth, which we shall discuss later. A scientific method typically follows the following six steps.
- Make an observation.
- Ask a question.
- Form a hypothesis or testable explanation, and make a prediction based on the hypothesis.
- Test the prediction by experiments, mathematical analysis, or modelling
- Analyze the results to test the validity of predictions based on the hypotheses.
- Reach a conclusion that supports or rejects the hypothesis.
We can represent the six steps schematically in the following diagram.
In science, no conclusion is final, and whenever we observe a fact that does not conform to the scientific theory based on the previous conclusion, the process starts all over again in search of a better theory.
Let us understand the process with the help of an example when you (like Newton) observed an apple falling from a tree to the ground.
| Steps | Scientific Methods |
| Observation | Apple falls |
| Question | Why apples fall |
| Hypothesis | Earth applies an attractive force on all objects. |
| Experiments | Multiple objects are dropped from a height, and their speed and acceleration are measured. |
| Analysis | All objects fall with the same acceleration (g) |
| Conclusion | Gravitational force due to earth F=mg (g is a gravitational constant) |
Scientific Theory
In science, a hypothesis must be rigorously and repeatedly tested before it is considered valid and acceptable by the scientific community. A hypothesis is consistently validated through additional observations or experimentation to acquire the status of a scientific theory. To ensure the integrity of a scientific theory, the scientific community prescribes rigorous publication procedures for validating the theory.
Science is not an esoteric knowledge that is available only to a few. It must be transparent and available to everyone, who can test its validity and challenge it when the theory does not conform to reality. The results of the scientific experiments must be replicable every single time to be accepted as a theory. Hence, scientists document the procedures, data, and conclusions in a scientific paper and submit it for review by other scientists, a process called double-blind peer review because the researchers don’t know who their reviewers are, and the reviewers don’t know who the researcher is. Once the reviewers approve the scientific paper, it is published in a scientific journal. Any scientist can verify the results and conduct experiments to prove the theory wrong. The scientific theory is rejected if the results are not validated in other experiments.
Fallibilism
Fallibilism means liable to error. It is the philosophical principle that propositions can be accepted even though they cannot be conclusively proven or justified. It also means that neither knowledge nor belief is certain. Fallibilism also implies corrigibilism, which means that propositions are open to revision.
Fallibilism is the opposite of infallibilism, which means the type of knowledge which is considered to be absolutely true and can’t be challenged or subjected to scrutiny. The knowledge contained in the holy books, scriptures and ancient texts fall in this category since they is not subjected to review.
Scientific knowledge is fallible since it is not a completely certain and adequate representation of its object. Science accepts that it can never achieve the universe’s final and absolute formulation. The best knowledge which we possess is uncertain and inexact. However, the degree of uncertainty varies across different types of knowledge.
Types of Knowledge
Nothing is absolutely true in science since everything comes with uncertainty. However, the degree of uncertainty varies across different types of knowledge. Let us understand the various layers of knowledge and their certainties.
1. Facts (F)
A fact is an observation that’s been confirmed so often that we can accept it as “true” for all intents and purposes. A fact represents the highest level of truth available to humankind. Some examples of facts are that water freezes at 32 F, 2+2=4, Delhi is the capital of India, Gandhi died on 30th Jan 1948, and all matters are comprised of atoms.
2. Hypothesis (H)
A hypothesis is a tentative explanation of an observation. A hypothesis is the starting point for further investigation, which can be expressed with statements like: ‘If A happens, then B must happen’. A hypothesis must be testable to be accepted as a scientific hypothesis.
For instance, ‘Obesity causes heart attack’ is a testable hypothesis because if we can prove it. We can collect information about the BMI (Body Mass Index) of the people who have heart attacks and then find out if any correlation indeed exists between the BMI and heart attack. A BMI above 30 is considered to be obese, and hence, if heart attack is more common in obese people than in non-obese people, we can accept the hypothesis to be true. We can reject the hypothesis if the study finds no correlation between BMI and heart attack.
A proven and tested hypothesis can be expressed as a law or a theory. Some examples of proven hypotheses are the Big Bang theory and the law of gravity.
However, some hypotheses are untested and yet widely prevalent. For instance, many Hindus believe that drinking cow urine cures them of many diseases. However, if no such study has been done or published in any scientific journal, the research methodology is not revealed, and the results are not replicable.
The untested or untestable hypothesis represents the lowest degree of truth. An unproven hypothesis is a superstition or a pseudoscience. For example, the hypothesis that when a black cat crosses your way, you fail in your task is unproven and, thus, a superstition. Similarly, astrology, palmistry, and numerology are not subject to scientific investigation and hence fall into the category of pseudoscience.
3. Law (L)
When a hypothesis is tested, and the relationship between two variables is discovered, we find a law in science. A law is a detailed description of how some aspect of the natural world behaves.
A law can usually be represented as a mathematical statement or formula as to how two or more quantities relate to each other. However, a law does not explain why something happens. Examples of law include Newton’s law of universal gravitation and the law of inertia (F=ma). A law represents science’s highest degree of truth, next only to facts.
4. Theory (T)
A theory explains some aspect of the natural world that’s well-substantiated by facts, tested hypotheses, and laws. For example, Einstein explained the force of gravity using the curvature of spacetime. Likewise, scientists explain the electrical forces using electric fields. Similarly, the evolution and Big Bang are theories because they have been tested rigorously.
5. Belief (B)
A belief implies a feeling that somebody or something is true, morally good or right or that somebody or something exists without seeking proof. A belief also means a statement relating to facts, laws, hypotheses or theories that are not scientifically provable. For example, the hypothesis that ‘God created the universe’, or ‘the righteous people go to heaven’, or ‘if you do good karma, you will get rebirth in a noble family’ are untestable as we God; heaven or rebirth are not physical realities. Hence, they can’t be tested scientifically.
Faith and Belief
Belief is sometimes used interchangeably with faith. Belief, however, refers to mental agreement related to intellect. Faith, on the other hand, refers to wholehearted commitment, which includes intellectual and emotional agreement.
Belief is a mental acceptance or conviction about something being true or real, often based on evidence, reason, or experience. We can change or modify our beliefs based on new information or arguments. A belief is a matter of degree as it involves a level of certainty or confidence. So, we may believe something strongly (Earth revolves around the sun) while we may believe something with lesser confidence (universe started with a big bang)
Conversely, faith is a strong trust or confidence in something or someone, often without concrete evidence. Faith is a deeply personal and emotional experience involving commitment, loyalty, or devotion. Faith is usually associated with spiritual or religious contexts, where one cannot doubt or question the belief. It tends to change the person’s worldview as the person sees everything through the lens of one’s faith. Saint Augustine explained, “Faith is to believe what you do not yet see; the reward for this faith is to see what you believe.”
Faith can, however, sometimes be blind to reason as it may include scientifically unprovable ideas such as God created the world, the afterlife, rebirth, eternal soul, etc. Since people cannot question faith, it has remained unchanged for centuries and millennia. When billions of people have faith in an idea, society is transformed due to their collective behaviour.
Conclusion
In conclusion, the scientific method is a powerful tool for generating knowledge. However, scientific knowledge is not absolute and is subject to revision. Understanding the different types of knowledge, including facts, hypotheses, laws, theories, and beliefs, is essential for critical thinking and decision-making. By recognizing the limitations and uncertainties of scientific knowledge, we can approach knowledge with a nuanced and open-minded perspective.
